Literature Review: Community Journalism
Given that the Milwaukee Neighborhood News Service (NNS) does most of its journalism within 17 communities in the city, what does the literature state about how journalism serves a community? One of the most discussed related concepts is community journalism, which Reader (2012) defined “as a specific practice of gathering, packaging and distributing news in predominately small, distinct geographic markets, with an emphasis on local news and information about community life” (p. 4). Media have chronicled communities for 200 years, but the term “community journalism” stuck after newspaper publisher-turned-university professor Kenneth Byerly wrote a book, Community Journalism, in 1961, about the traits of what others had termed country, rural, weekly or hometown journalism (Reader, p. 4; Terry, 2011; Hume 2012).
Lowery, Brozana, Mackay (2008) defined community journalism as “intimate, caring and personal; it reflects the community and tells its stories” (p. 276), all of which are ideas that NNS is likely to support. But other definitions equate it with news media serving small towns, neighborhoods or even villages across the globe (Harvey et al, p. 282; Lewis, Kaufhold, Lasorsa, 2010; Wotanis, 2012). Gillis, Moore (2008) declared that it is important not to limit the term to a “very defined local group of people or target area,” but to remember that community journalism involves “a way of doing journalism” of serving and involving the people in the community’s important issues (p. 9).
Scholars agree, though, that community journalism is most prevalent when journalists communicate with people they – particularly those in traditional media – ordinarily overlook or ignore; consider themselves good neighbors who understand the community; seek readers truly interested in its everyday life, and hope to encourage solutions to problems (Killenberg, Dardenne, 1997; Kirkpatrick, 2001; Hansen, Hansen, 2011). Reader (2012) noted that audiences appreciating community journalism value the mundane coverage just as much, if not more so, than award-winning work produced by regional news organizations. Hatcher (2009) argued that community-focused reporting can lead to more relevant stories; Killenberg, Dardenne (1997) also contend that such stories often capture aspects of experience not typically found in the news: We know that by approaching people in their neighborhoods and gathering places and writing about what we find there we can provide interesting, provocative and valuable content that doesn’t fit the forms of traditional news coverage. Our approach includes stories about good deeds by average folks and about institutions and organizations that seem to be working, and it brings more voices and perspectives to the news (p. 56).
This style of journalism comes with its own challenges, as a number of scholars have noted, and that NNS has already encountered. Harvey (2007) wrote of “maintaining readership and circulation and acquiring advertising revenue to keep the presses running and staff paid” (p. 26). Reader (p. 13) pointed out that “many community newspapers are really only one or two people (in many cases, the owners). Kirkpatrick noted that in his experience as a journalist and editor of such a newspaper, he was constantly faced with limitations of staff size and time, or the lack of it: “If you have two to four or even a dozen journalists, you are always counting heads” (p. 19).
The expansion of new digital media is also changing the definition of community journalism. Some scholars have noted that the Internet can virtually enhance what community journalism does best: to connect and be hyperlocal (Lowman 2008; Gilligan, 2012; Terry, 2011, p. 80; Garyantes, 2012, p. 48; Wotanis, 2012, p. 13). Others have stressed that community journalism is not about place alone but also about the importance of serving communities borne of special interests such as ethnicity, faith and ideas. They observe that journalists don’t always report well on communities and perspectives different from their own (Hansen, Hansen, 2011, p. 99; Garyantes, 2012, pp. 47-48; Meyer, Daniels, 2012).
This divide between communities and journalists has led many universities to offer their students and faculty as bridges. The partnership between NNS and Marquette University’s Diederich College of Communication is one of many efforts nationally in which educational institutions team with professional newsrooms and nonprofit organizations to provide training for aspiring journalists. In 2008, for example, the American television network ABC joined with five major journalism schools – Arizona State, Florida, North Carolina, Texas and Syracuse – to create multimedia bureaus for students to “report on stories in their area and produce a wide array of content” for the network’s digital and broadcast entities (Oliver, 2008). Temple University in Philadelphia and the University of California-Berkeley have also established programs for students to pursue and disseminate community journalism via the Web. Roush (2009) reported that dozens of newspapers nationwide had partnered with local journalism schools to create programs that provide students “on-the-job training in community coverage and the latest multimedia methods of newsgathering and delivery” (p. 44).
These partnerships did not just arise for the sake of training or for just college students. Friedland (2004) noted that while some schools had begun teaching about journalism focused in communities, their students had few places to do it after graduation. He did, however, cite efforts in three states where high school students were publishing news about both young people and their communities on a local website. Killenberg and Dardenne (1997) urged journalism educators to ensure that their students get as close as possible to their communities. Among several scholars who have shared accounts of sending journalism students out of their classrooms, they developed a “human affairs reporting” course that focused on acquiring perspective and context, redefining news and reconsidering news conventions.
Calling it a “natural fit for community papers and journalism programs to work together,” Bechtel and Lauterer (2007) recalled how their advanced editing and community journalism classes merged one term to create an online and print community newspaper. Not only did their students report and edit copy borne out of a classroom, they also emerged from “the university bubble” while contributing to something in which their work was “published for the world to see.” The authors wrote that “we have never seen students so energized and engaged in a class project” and that it was led by peer editors who had to deal with personal issues, journalistic ethics and crisis management.
Lowman (2008) detailed a pilot project in which a class created multimedia packages about small communities the local daily newspaper served marginally. The daily published the work posted on blogs the students also produced for the effort. The students initially struggled “to get out of their cars and initiate conversations with strangers” and balance other schoolwork with “the black hole of this project,” but ended up doing “amazing work” and “giving voice to the voiceless,” Lowman reported.
Hatcher (2009) told of journalism educators saying these projects challenge students to experience a “world beyond their own,” connect with the community where they live as students and provide a new news source for it. Most of his students had to get past being in uncomfortable settings; depending on phones, email and the Web for getting information; and laziness. Inevitably, Hatcher’s students stopped complaining about busy schedules and approaching people for interviews and enjoyed meeting residents “who shared common concerns, hopes and aspirations.” The students agreed the best stories involved everyday people, he said, while adding that instructors must be “cheerleaders, drill sergeants and therapists” and allow for discussion about writing about diversity.
Lowery, Brozana, Mackay (2008) defined community journalism as “intimate, caring and personal; it reflects the community and tells its stories” (p. 276), all of which are ideas that NNS is likely to support. But other definitions equate it with news media serving small towns, neighborhoods or even villages across the globe (Harvey et al, p. 282; Lewis, Kaufhold, Lasorsa, 2010; Wotanis, 2012). Gillis, Moore (2008) declared that it is important not to limit the term to a “very defined local group of people or target area,” but to remember that community journalism involves “a way of doing journalism” of serving and involving the people in the community’s important issues (p. 9).
Scholars agree, though, that community journalism is most prevalent when journalists communicate with people they – particularly those in traditional media – ordinarily overlook or ignore; consider themselves good neighbors who understand the community; seek readers truly interested in its everyday life, and hope to encourage solutions to problems (Killenberg, Dardenne, 1997; Kirkpatrick, 2001; Hansen, Hansen, 2011). Reader (2012) noted that audiences appreciating community journalism value the mundane coverage just as much, if not more so, than award-winning work produced by regional news organizations. Hatcher (2009) argued that community-focused reporting can lead to more relevant stories; Killenberg, Dardenne (1997) also contend that such stories often capture aspects of experience not typically found in the news: We know that by approaching people in their neighborhoods and gathering places and writing about what we find there we can provide interesting, provocative and valuable content that doesn’t fit the forms of traditional news coverage. Our approach includes stories about good deeds by average folks and about institutions and organizations that seem to be working, and it brings more voices and perspectives to the news (p. 56).
This style of journalism comes with its own challenges, as a number of scholars have noted, and that NNS has already encountered. Harvey (2007) wrote of “maintaining readership and circulation and acquiring advertising revenue to keep the presses running and staff paid” (p. 26). Reader (p. 13) pointed out that “many community newspapers are really only one or two people (in many cases, the owners). Kirkpatrick noted that in his experience as a journalist and editor of such a newspaper, he was constantly faced with limitations of staff size and time, or the lack of it: “If you have two to four or even a dozen journalists, you are always counting heads” (p. 19).
The expansion of new digital media is also changing the definition of community journalism. Some scholars have noted that the Internet can virtually enhance what community journalism does best: to connect and be hyperlocal (Lowman 2008; Gilligan, 2012; Terry, 2011, p. 80; Garyantes, 2012, p. 48; Wotanis, 2012, p. 13). Others have stressed that community journalism is not about place alone but also about the importance of serving communities borne of special interests such as ethnicity, faith and ideas. They observe that journalists don’t always report well on communities and perspectives different from their own (Hansen, Hansen, 2011, p. 99; Garyantes, 2012, pp. 47-48; Meyer, Daniels, 2012).
This divide between communities and journalists has led many universities to offer their students and faculty as bridges. The partnership between NNS and Marquette University’s Diederich College of Communication is one of many efforts nationally in which educational institutions team with professional newsrooms and nonprofit organizations to provide training for aspiring journalists. In 2008, for example, the American television network ABC joined with five major journalism schools – Arizona State, Florida, North Carolina, Texas and Syracuse – to create multimedia bureaus for students to “report on stories in their area and produce a wide array of content” for the network’s digital and broadcast entities (Oliver, 2008). Temple University in Philadelphia and the University of California-Berkeley have also established programs for students to pursue and disseminate community journalism via the Web. Roush (2009) reported that dozens of newspapers nationwide had partnered with local journalism schools to create programs that provide students “on-the-job training in community coverage and the latest multimedia methods of newsgathering and delivery” (p. 44).
These partnerships did not just arise for the sake of training or for just college students. Friedland (2004) noted that while some schools had begun teaching about journalism focused in communities, their students had few places to do it after graduation. He did, however, cite efforts in three states where high school students were publishing news about both young people and their communities on a local website. Killenberg and Dardenne (1997) urged journalism educators to ensure that their students get as close as possible to their communities. Among several scholars who have shared accounts of sending journalism students out of their classrooms, they developed a “human affairs reporting” course that focused on acquiring perspective and context, redefining news and reconsidering news conventions.
Calling it a “natural fit for community papers and journalism programs to work together,” Bechtel and Lauterer (2007) recalled how their advanced editing and community journalism classes merged one term to create an online and print community newspaper. Not only did their students report and edit copy borne out of a classroom, they also emerged from “the university bubble” while contributing to something in which their work was “published for the world to see.” The authors wrote that “we have never seen students so energized and engaged in a class project” and that it was led by peer editors who had to deal with personal issues, journalistic ethics and crisis management.
Lowman (2008) detailed a pilot project in which a class created multimedia packages about small communities the local daily newspaper served marginally. The daily published the work posted on blogs the students also produced for the effort. The students initially struggled “to get out of their cars and initiate conversations with strangers” and balance other schoolwork with “the black hole of this project,” but ended up doing “amazing work” and “giving voice to the voiceless,” Lowman reported.
Hatcher (2009) told of journalism educators saying these projects challenge students to experience a “world beyond their own,” connect with the community where they live as students and provide a new news source for it. Most of his students had to get past being in uncomfortable settings; depending on phones, email and the Web for getting information; and laziness. Inevitably, Hatcher’s students stopped complaining about busy schedules and approaching people for interviews and enjoyed meeting residents “who shared common concerns, hopes and aspirations.” The students agreed the best stories involved everyday people, he said, while adding that instructors must be “cheerleaders, drill sergeants and therapists” and allow for discussion about writing about diversity.
